Which 2023–2025 randomized controlled trials evaluated popular memory supplements like omega-3s, ginkgo biloba, bacopa, and phosphatidylserine?
Executive summary
Recent randomized controlled trials from 2023–2025 most clearly document multivitamin and combined formulations (including phosphatidylserine in multi-ingredient products) rather than a steady stream of isolated, high-quality RCTs testing omega‑3s, ginkgo biloba, bacopa, or pure phosphatidylserine in large populations. The COSMOS program’s multisite trials (COSMOS-Web/COSMOS-Mind) randomized 3,562 older adults to a daily multivitamin vs placebo and showed improved immediate recall and modest cognitive benefits [1] and were meta‑analysed within COSMOS clinic subcohorts [2].
1. What large RCTs actually ran in 2023–2025: COSMOS and spin‑offs
The highest‑visibility randomized work in 2023 was the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS) and its cognitive ancillary COSMOS‑Web/COSMOS‑Mind: an internet‑battery trial of 3,562 adults randomized to a daily multivitamin (Centrum Silver) vs placebo for three years that found better ModRey immediate recall at 1 year and on average across 3 years [1]. A clinic subcohort and later meta‑analysis pooled multiple COSMOS cognition studies to report consistent cognitive benefits for the multivitamin arm [2].
2. Omega‑3s: many prior trials but few definitive new, large RCTs in 2023–2025 in provided sources
Omega‑3 fatty acids are heavily studied historically and appear in multi‑nutrient trials, but the current search set does not provide a stand‑alone, large, 2023–2025 RCT of purified omega‑3s that meets the user’s criteria. Narrative and systematic reviews in our set note omega‑3s among nutrients investigated for cognition [3] [4], but available sources do not mention a single large, definitive 2023–2025 randomized trial of omega‑3s as an isolated intervention in older adults within these results.
3. Ginkgo biloba: long history, but big negative trials and mixed evidence remain
Ginkgo has a long randomized trial record (for example, the large Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory study mentioned in reviews), but our 2023–2025 sources emphasise mixed results and that the most well‑designed trials did not show prevention of dementia [5] [6]. Recent papers in the set discuss ginkgo as a common ingredient in combination products and meta‑analyses, but do not point to a new large, high‑quality 2023–2025 RCT of isolated ginkgo that overturned prior conclusions [5] [7].
4. Bacopa monnieri: positive small/medium trials but limited 2023–2025 RCTs in this set
Systematic reviews cited here say several clinical trials show memory benefits for Bacopa over 3–12 months and that it is among the better‑supported herbal options [4] [8]. However, the provided reporting does not list a definitive, large 2023–2025 randomized trial of Bacopa alone comparable in scale to COSMOS; most modern evidence is smaller trials or meta‑analyses summarized in reviews [4].
5. Phosphatidylserine: RCTs appear mostly as part of combination formulas
Phosphatidylserine appears in randomized trials within combination supplements. Notably, a 2023 Neurol. Ther. trial tested a whole coffee cherry extract plus phosphatidylserine formulation in healthy adults with memory concerns (reported in a review) and a 2024 Chinese trial tested a food supplement with PS plus ALA and ginkgo flavonoids in older adults with MCI [9] [10]. The evidence in our set shows PS is often studied as part of multi‑ingredient products rather than as a large, isolated 2023–2025 RCT [9] [10].
6. What the literature and reviews tell us about quality and bias
Recent narrative and systematic reviews in these sources stress heterogeneity: many trials use combination products, formulations and doses vary, sample sizes are small in many herb trials, and risk of bias is inconsistent [11] [7] [4]. Reviews caution that the best‑designed large RCTs (for example, prior ginkgo trials) did not show dementia prevention, and that the gold standard evidence for isolated supplements remains limited [6] [12].
7. How to interpret headline claims — context and agendas
Industry and consumer pieces often promote omega‑3s, phosphatidylserine, ginkgo and bacopa as “supported” [8] [13], but academic reviews emphasize mixed results and methodological limits [4] [7]. Multivitamin findings from COSMOS are robust within that trial program but are not evidence that every popular single‑ingredient supplement produces the same effect [1] [2]. Watch for commercial agendas: product pages and press releases often aggregate smaller positive trials without describing bias or dose differences [14] [5].
8. Bottom line and next steps for readers
If you want trials meeting the 2023–2025 randomized criterion in these search results: the clearest, large RCT evidence presented here is for multivitamin supplementation from the COSMOS program [1] [2]; phosphatidylserine and other popular ingredients show randomized study activity mostly inside combination formulas or smaller trials [9] [10] [4]. For a definitive list of isolated, single‑ingredient RCTs in that date window, clinicaltrials.gov or the primary trial publications (not all included in this result set) should be searched — available sources do not mention a comprehensive isolated‑ingredient RCT list for omega‑3s, ginkgo, bacopa, and pure phosphatidylserine between 2023–2025.