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What are the core political and ideological features that define fascism?
Executive summary
Scholars and reference works converge on a set of core features that recur in 20th‑century fascist movements: extreme militant nationalism, contempt for liberal democracy, authoritarian leadership and cults of personality, militarism and violence, and exclusionary definitions of the nation that justify repression (see Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica Q&A) [1] [2]. Other analysts add lists of overlapping traits — for example Umberto Eco’s cultural/style‑focused checklist and Lawrence Britt’s “14 characteristics” — and historians caution there is no single, universally accepted definition [3] [4] [5].
1. Ultranationalism and the myth of national rebirth
Fascist movements place the nation above the individual and mobilize a myth of national decline followed by rebirth — a narrative that legitimates sweeping political change and suppression of dissent [6] [7]. Encyclopaedia Britannica notes “extreme militant nationalism” and the desire to create a cohesive “people’s community” in which individual interests are subordinated to the nation [1] [8].
2. Authoritarian leadership and the cult of the leader
Fascism typically centralizes power around a charismatic, often infallible leader whose authority overrides pluralistic institutions; this personalist rule is key to mobilizing mass support and enforcing unity [9] [1]. Such leaders cultivate a political style and symbolism that can be as important as doctrine, a point Umberto Eco emphasized when describing fascism’s “style” and rituals [3].
3. Rejection of liberal democracy and pluralism
A core feature is contempt for electoral democracy, political pluralism, and civil liberties; fascist movements portray democratic institutions as weak or corrupt and replace them with top‑down control [5] [1]. The US Holocaust Memorial Museum similarly stresses fascism’s rejection of representative liberal government in favor of a unitary national will [7].
4. Militarism, violence, and the normalization of coercion
Fascists glorify military values, prepare society for conflict, and accept — even celebrate — violence as a political tool and a means of “purifying” or defending the nation [2] [7]. Britannica’s accounts link militant nationalism to a belief that a strong, vigilant military is necessary to defend national interests [2].
5. Exclusionary identity politics, scapegoating, and racism
Fascist projects commonly define the nation in exclusionary terms (ethnic, racial, religious or ideological), identify internal enemies as scapegoats, and pursue policies that strip targeted groups of rights; Nazi Germany’s racial program is a paradigmatic example [6] [1]. The Holocaust Encyclopedia underscores fascism’s intense interest in delineating who “belongs” to the national body [7].
6. Anti‑left orientation and “fascist negations”
Fascism typically opposes socialism, communism and liberal individualism, presenting itself as a third‑position alternative and often allying with elites or certain economic interests to block leftist movements [8] [1]. Scholars like Stanley G. Payne identify anti‑communism and anti‑liberalism as recurring policy negations that help define fascist movements [8].
7. Ambiguity on economics and corporatism
Historians disagree on whether fascism has a single economic model; some describe corporatist or state‑guided economies, while others emphasize pragmatic accommodation of business and elite interests rather than a coherent economic doctrine [6] [5]. Britannica notes scholarly debate about fascism’s economic distinctiveness, warning against simple generalizations [5].
8. Lists, heuristics and the danger of overreach
Analytic checklists (Lawrence Britt’s 14 points, Umberto Eco’s “Ur‑Fascism”) are useful heuristics to spot patterns — such as disdain for human rights, identification of enemies, and intertwining of state and religion — but critics warn these lists are subjective and can be misused as catch‑all labels [4] [10] [3]. Britannica and other scholars emphasize there is no universally accepted definition and that fascist movements varied across time and place [5] [8].
9. How historians frame disagreements
Historians debate whether fascism is a radical, modern revolutionary movement or an extreme conservative reaction; this disagreement shapes how features are weighted and whether contemporary movements are described as fascist [5]. The Definitions of Fascism page records competing formulations — from Paxton’s operational definition to Payne’s long lists — underscoring contested interpretation [8].
10. Practical takeaways for readers
To evaluate claims that a contemporary actor or movement is “fascist,” compare observed policies and rhetoric against multiple criteria: ultranationalism, cult of leadership, anti‑pluralism, normalization of violence, scapegoating of minorities, and contempt for civil rights — while bearing in mind historians’ caution that context, variation, and scholarly debate matter [1] [5] [4]. Use checklists as starting points, not definitive diagnoses, and consult detailed historical studies for rigorous claims [10].