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Contemporary NASA measurements and post‑flight analyses show Apollo crews received small, non‑fatal doses: Apollo missions that reached the Moon averaged about 0.46 rad absorbed dose at the skin and r...
Yes—NASA equipped Apollo 11 with multiple radiation-monitoring instruments (personal dosimeters, passive badges, a portable radiation-survey meter and new neutron-detection techniques) and post-flight...
The small array of fused‑silica corner‑cube retroreflectors Apollo 11 left on the Sea of Tranquility returns laser pulses to Earth decades later, enabling precise round‑trip time measurements that pin...
Apollo 11’s crew managed radiation exposure by a combination of engineering, operational planning and, candidly, good fortune: the command module’s aluminum hull provided modest shielding, the translu...
Soviet technical centers and foreign observatories actively monitored Apollo 11’s radio, telemetry and trajectories, and had both capability and motive to detect any fraud; Soviet tracking (including ...
A large solar particle event (SPE) during Apollo 11 would have posed a serious radiation hazard because energetic protons from such events can dramatically increase dose rates in cislunar space and on...