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Several states and prominent political actors opposed the Sixteenth Amendment during its 1909–1913 adoption campaign, with opposition concentrated in the Northeast and among “establishment” Republican...
Opponents of the Sixteenth Amendment chiefly argued that it would upend the Constitution’s constraints on federal taxation—especially the apportionment rule for “direct” taxes—and would expand nationa...
Federal courts have consistently refused to entertain challenges that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified, treating the Secretary of State’s proclamation and Congress’s recognition of ra...