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The Nuremberg trials rejected the superior-orders defense, making individual criminal responsibility for atrocities the default rule.
Yes: —the systematic, state-sponsored murder of approximately six million Jews by and its collaborators between 1941 and 1945—undeniably happened, a conclusion supported by an immense, multi-type body...
The Lidice massacre was the complete destruction of the Czech village of Lidice on 10 June 1942 carried out by German SS and police units as a reprisal for the assassination of Reichsprotektor Reinhar...
The annihilation of Lidice on 10 June 1942 was seized by the Allies as a vivid, almost indisputable exemplar of Nazi brutality and used repeatedly in wartime publicity and in postwar prosecutions; Naz...
Three distinct German wartime instruments—the Military Justice/“Barbarossa” Decree (13 May 1941), the Commissar Order (Guidelines for the Treatment of Political Commissars, 6 June 1941), and the relat...
The official 1946 U.S. Government publication Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression — the multi‑volume “Red Series” of documentary evidence used at the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal that includes...
The established that "just following orders" is not an automatic shield from criminal responsibility, embedding individual accountability into postwar international law through and subsequent Nurember...
The full English translation of Nuremberg Document 446‑PS (Directive No. 21, “Case Barbarossa”) is available in multiple open‑access archival repositories: Cornell University’s Donovan Nuremberg Trial...
Germany’s post‑1945 transformation combined legal purges, mass internment, political re‑education and intensive physical reconstruction under four Allied goals — demilitarization, denazification, dece...
Courts‑martial have long rejected blanket immunity for "I was following orders," instead treating obedience to superior orders as a constrained defense: lawful orders must be followed, but manifestly ...
Yes: the Holocaust happened. A vast, multi‑type body of evidence—Nazi documents and orders, Allied and German photographs and films, survivor testimony, forensic archaeology, and postwar investigation...
The Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals established that "just following orders" is not an absolute defense for war crimes, a doctrinal shift that directly influenced U.S. military law by narrowing the perm...